Namkhai Norbu was born in a small village called Geuk (dge ‘ug) near Changra (lcang ra) in Derge, Kham, in 1938, on the thirteenth day of the tenth lunar month of the earth-tiger year. Later in life he chose to mark his birthday on December 8. His father, Tsewang Namgyel (tshe dbang rnam rgyal, 1889–1962) of the Trokhe (gro khe) clan from Kamtok (skam thog), was a government official of the Derge kingdom; his mother, Yeshe Chodron (ye shes chos sgron, 1904–1965), belonged to the Ngonatsang (sngo rna tshang), one of the most ancient families in Derge. She was the niece of Jamyang Chokyi Wangpo (‘jam dbyangs chos kyi dbang po, 1893–1908) and the sister of his reincarnation, Khyentse Chokyi Wangchuk (mkhyen brtse’i chos kyi dbang phyug, 1909–1960), the first and second generation reincarnations of Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (‘jam dbyangs mkhyen brtse’i dbang po, 1820–1892), respectively.

He had three elder sisters: Jamyang Chodron (‘jam dbyangs chos sgron, 1921–1985), known as Jamcho; Sonam Pelmo (bsod nams dpal mo, 1924–1988), known as Aso; Tashi Yangdzom (bkra shis dbyangs ‘dzoms, 1929–2006), known as Trayang; and one younger sister, Tsering Yangdzom (tshe ring dbyangs ‘dzoms, b. 1946). His two younger brothers were Pema Gungtsen (padma gung btsan, 1940–1960) and Jamyang Puntsok (‘jam dbyangs phun tshogs, 1943–1948).

His father, paternal grandmother Lhundrub Tso (lhun grub mtsho), and paternal uncle Tokden Orgyen Tenzin (rtogs ldan o rgyan bstan ‘dzin, 1888–1962) were all disciples of the Nyingma master Adzom Drukpa (a ‘dzom ‘brug pa, 1842–1924). After the birth of their third child, a girl, like her two elder sisters, Adzom Drukpa presented them with a statue of Green Tārā and told Namkhai Norbu’s parents that if one prayed fervently to the deity anything wished would be fulfilled. Hoping for a male child, Tsewang Namgyel employed a lama called Dondrub Chodar (don grub chos dar), also known as Drolma Lama (sgrol ma bla ma), to chant the Praise to the Twenty-One Tārās for one year. At the end of his retreat, the lama had a dream announcing the birth of three male children, the first of whom was Namkhai Norbu.

Recognition and Early Training

Namkhai Norbu’s paternal uncle Tokden Orgyen Tenzin first recognized him as a reincarnation of his teacher Adzom Drukpa. In 1940, when Namkhai Norbu was two years old, Pelyul Karma Yangsi, Pema Gyurme (dpal yul karma yang srid padma ‘gyur med, 1908–1959), and the Sixth Shechen Rabjam, Nangdze Drubpai Dorje (zhe chen rab ‘byams 06 snang mdzad grub pa’i rdo rje,1910–1960), endorsed the reincarnation. However, another tulku of the master had already been installed at Adzom Gar (a ‘dzom sgar), and so Namkhai Norbu was never officially enthroned.

The following year, the Sixteenth Karmapa, Rangjung Rigpai Dorje (karma pa 16 rang byung rig pa’i rdo rje, 1924–1981) and the Eleventh Tai Situ, Pema Wangchok Gyelpo (ta’i si tu 11 padma dbang mchog rgyal po, 1886–1952), recognized him as the mind-emanation of Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (zhabs drung ngag dbang rnam rgyal 1594–1651), the Drukpa Kagyu lama who first united Bhutan in the seventeenth century. Circumstances prevented his going to Bhutan to assume the position.

Instead, the three-year old child took up residency in the Rongpokhang Palace (rong po khang pho brang) in Derge Gonchen with his tutor Dondrub Chodar, who was the lama of his family. During the summer he went to Pawok (dpa’ ‘og) with the king and received the initiation of White Tārā from Situ Rinpoche.

In 1945 he was recognized as a reincarnation of the Sakya master Jamyang Loter Wangpo (‘jam dbyangs blo gter dbang po, 1847–1914) by the Fortieth Sakya Trichen Ngawang Tutob Wangchuk (sa skya khri chen 40 ngag dbang mthu stobs dbang phyug, 1900–-1950). This was likely done to secure his continued presence at Lhundrubteng (lhun grub steng), the royal Sakya monastery of Derge.

Religious Training, 1943–1953

Namkhai Norbu began his religious training in 1943, at the age of six, memorizing scriptures at Lhundrubteng, where he was based until 1947. He then transferred to the monastic colleges at Wonto Monastery (dbon stod dgon), with periodic visits to Galenteng Monastery (sga glen steng), to see his uncle Khyentse, who resided there.

His primary teachers during this period were his maternal uncle Khyentse Chokyi Wangchuk, his paternal uncle Tokden Orgyen Tenzin, Drubwang Kunga Pelden (grub dbang kun dga’ dpal ldan, 1878–1950) of Dzogchen Monastery (rdzogs chen dgon), and Khyenrab Chokyi Wozer (mkhyen rab chos kyi ‘od zer, 1889–1958), the second abbot of Khamshe (khams byed), the monastic college at Dzongsar Monastery (rdzong gsar dgon).

In the summer of 1943, he went to Tsarazhab (rtswa ra zhabs), a hermitage near Geuk, where his uncle Tokden Orgyen Tenzin was living in retreat. Here he saw for the first time his uncle practicing Yantra Yoga (‘phrul ‘khor nyi zla kha sbyor), an ancient tradition stemming from Vairocana that he would be instrumental in promoting in the West. At the end of the year his younger brother Jamyang Puntsok, who was recognized as a tulku of the famous Kagyu Kālacakra master Dru Jamyang Drakpa (‘bru ‘jam dbyangs grags pa, 1884–1942) was born.

Back at Gonchen, from 1944 to 1945, Namkhai Norbu trained in Sakya rituals, including the construction of maṇḍalas. In the autumn of 1945, he went back home where he received from his maternal uncle, together with his family, his first Dzogchen teachings, the empowerments and instructions of the Longchen Nyingtik (klong chen snying thig).

In the autumn of 1946, his paternal grandmother Lhundrub Tso died at Wonto. Many important lamas were invited to perform the forty-nine-day rituals, including Khyenrab Chokyi Wozer, his future teacher, who had recently started his own monastic college at Wonto. His maternal uncle Khyentse Chokyi Wangchuk was also invited, and soon after Namkhai Norbu went together with him to Galenteng. There he received empowerments and teachings from his uncle’s teacher Drubwang Kunga Pelden, in particular Lhatsun Namkha Jigme ‘s (lha btsun nam mkha’ ‘jigs med, 1597–1650) revelation, or terma (gter ma), Accomplishing the Life Force of the Vidyādhara (rig ‘dzin srog sgrub); Longchenpa ‘s (klong chen pa, 1308–1364) Seven Treasuries (mdzod bdun) and Resting in Ease Trilogy (ngal gso skor gsum); Pema Lingpa‘s (padma gling pa, 1450–1521) Gathering the Intent of Samantabhadra (kun bzang dgongs’dus); and Tennyi Lingpa ‘s (bstan gnyis gling pa, 1480–1535) Primordial Wisdom that Liberates on Seeing (yang tig ye shes mthong grol). His uncle also gave him the reading transmission of the Collected Nyingma Tantras (rnying ma rgyud ‘bum).

In 1947, in a hermitage named Gyawo (rgya bo), Kunga Pelden gave Namkhai Norbu the empowerment and instructions for the Dzogchen teaching of Black Quintessence (yang ti nag po), after which he made his first dark retreat. He also received Patrul Rinpoche ‘s (dpal sprul rin po che, 1808–1887) collected works, Longchenpa’s Quintessence of the Guru (bla ma yang tig), the Dzogchen teaching known as The Three Words that Strike the Vital Point (tshig gsum gnad brdegs), the Mindroling tradition of Vajrasattva (smin gling rdor sems), and the Sakya teachings known as the Trilogy of Red (dmar po skor gsum) and the Three Deities of Long Life (tshe lha rnam gsum).

In the same year he enrolled at the Wonto monastic college where he studied philosophy under Khyenrab Chokyi Wozer for five years, following the curriculum established by Khenpo Zhenga Rinpoche (mkhan po gzhan dga’, 1871–1927).

In 1948 Namkhai Norbu’s younger brother Jamyang Puntsok died at home and among the lamas invited to perform the rituals, Namkhai Norbu met the Kagyu Lama Trungram Gyaltrul (drung ram rgyal sprul, 1894–1959), from whom he received the empowerment of Jatson Nyingpo‘s (‘ja’ tshon snying po, 1585–1656) Peaceful and Wrathful Padmavajra (zhi khro padma vajra). Also there was Negyab Rinpoche Lodro Gyatso (gnas rgyab blo gros rgya mtsho, 1902–1952), from whom he received Karma Lingpa’s Peaceful and Wrathful Deities (kar gling zhi khro). Following the ceremonies he went to Negyab (gnas rgyab) where from the same teacher he received the Spoken Teachings of the Nyingma (rnying ma bka’ ma) and the Sky Teachings (gnam chos) cycle of Mingyur Dorje (mi ‘gyur rdo rje, 1645–1667). He then went to a place called Hedrak Kar for a retreat on the deity Ngondzok Gyelpo (mngon rdzogs rgyal po).

He continued his education under Khyenrab Chokyi Wozer, receiving from him instructions on the Words of My Perfect Teacher (kun bzang bla ma’i zhal lung), Patrul Rinpoche’s commentary on the preliminary practices of the Longchen Nyingtik, which he also completed. He then went to Dzogchen Monastery to receive from Dzogchen Khenpo Yonten Gonpo (rdzogs chen mkhan po yon tan mgon po, 1899–1959) the Guhyagarbha Tantra with one of its commentaries. He also received the Chod cycle Self-Liberation of Grasping (‘dzin pa rang grol), a revelation of Do Khyentse Yeshe Dorje (rdo mkhyen brtse ye shes rdo rje, 1800–1866). On his return to Wonto, he received from Khyenrab Chokyi Wozer the “three root” empowerment (rtsa gsum bka’ dbang) for the Longchen Nyingtik, Khenpo Zhenga’s Guhyagarbha commentary, and Trengpo Terton’s revelation Bindu of Liberation: The Spontaneous Liberation of the Mind (grol tig dgongs pa rang grol).

At the end of the summer 1950 Namkhai Norbu fell ill, reputedly due to a provocation by the deity Gyelpo Shukden in the temple of Wonto, and he became lame in his left leg. He went home to recover, and while there the daughter of his elder sister Jamcho died of smallpox. To officiate the rituals the family invited Khyentse Chokyi Wangchuk, who took the opportunity to give Namkhai Norbu an initiation for Wrathful Guru: Blazing Wisdom (gu ru drag po ye shes rab ‘bar), a revelation of Longsel Nyingpo (klong gsal snying po, 1625–1692). Namkhai Norbu credited that practice for healing his leg. While he was home, he received the complete Compendium of Tantras (rgyud sde kun btus), Loter Wangpo’s collection of Sakya tantric literature, from Khenpo Pelden Tsultrim (mkhan po dpal ldan tshul khrims, b.1906), a student of Loter Wangpo.

In the second month of spring, 1951, together with his uncle Khyentse Chokyi Wangchuk he went to Jyeku Monastery (skye dgu dgon) where he received the Kālacakra empowerment and Wangdud Nyingpo’s (dbang bdud snying po)’s Wrathful Guru cycle (gu ru drag po) from the Sakya lama Khenpo Khangsar Ngawang Yonten Gyatso (mkhan po khang sar ngag dbang yon tan rgya mtsho, 1902–1963). This lama, popularly known as the Bhutanese, or Druk Khenpo (‘brug mkhan po), had earlier served as the sixty-ninth abbot of Ngor Monastery (ngor dgon) and was well known for his efforts to eradicate the worship of Shukden from Sakya communities. When they returned to Galenteng, he also received from his uncle the transmission of the Mahāmāyā Tantra. After that, he and Khyentse Chokyi Wangchuk went together to visit the Mahasiddha of Nalung, the Siddha of Chamten and other masters.

That summer he returned to Wonto where Khenpo Chokyi Wozer taught the Collected Writing of the Sakya Masters (sa skya bka’ ‘bum) and the Three Appearances (snang gsum). At the end of the summer, he went Lhadrang Monastery (lha ‘brang dgon) where his uncle Khyentse gave him the transmission of Guru Chowang ‘s (gu ru chos dbang, 1212–1270) Embodiment of the Guru’s Secrets (la ma gsang ‘dus) and Vimalamitra ‘s commentary on the Mañjuśrīnāmasaṃgīti. At the Gyawo Hermitage Khyentse Chokyi Wozer also gave his nephew the transmission of his own terma cycle Wrathful Guru Kīla (gu ru drag phur). He also started to study the Four Medical Tantras (rgyud bzhi) under Khardo Lama Ngawang (mkhar mdo bla ma ngag dbang) and Khenpo Chokyi Wozer. That autumn Khenpo Chokyi Wozer transmitted Loter Wangpo’s Compendium of Sādhana (sgrub thabs kun btus). At the end of the year Namkhai Norbu accompanied his uncle to the funeral of Drubwang Kunga Pelden, who had passed away at Galenteng.

Khenpo Chokyi Wozer continued transmitting major collections of scripture to Namkhai Norbu with Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo’s Combined Sādhana of the Three Roots (rtsa gsum sgril sgrub), the Nāropa tradition of Vajrayoginī (na ro mkha’ spyod ma), and Mingyur Dorje’s Sky Teaching revelation Buddhahood in the Palm of your Hand (gnam chos sangs rgyas lag’chang), after which he completed the preliminary practices of the Sky Teaching cycle. In order to receive Mipam Gyato ‘s (mi pham rgya mtsho, 1846–1912) commentary on the Kālacakra Tantra (dus ‘khor grel chen) that autumn, he also studied zodiacal astrology (dkar rtsis), the Tibetan tradition of which is largely based on that tantra. Dru Jamyang Drakpa’s daughter, Yudron (g.yu sgron) received the Kālacakra teachings with him. Khenpo Chokyi Wozer also transmitted the Second Karmapa’s Profound Inner Topics (zab mo nang don) together with Jamgon Kongtrul’s commentary and Rongzompa‘s (rong zom pa, eleventh–twelfth century) Entering the Way of the Great Vehicle (theg pa chen po’i tshul la ‘jug pa), and Ngari Paṇchen‘s (nga’ ris paN chen, 1487–1582) Ascertaining the Three Vows (sdom gsum rnam nges).

In the summer he went on a tour in the nomad areas in order to collect funds for both Wonto and Galenteng and took detailed notes on the nomad traditions and way of life. These notes later served as the basis of a book, published in Tibetan in 1983, in Italian in 1990, and English in 1997 as Journey Among the Tibetan Nomads (byang ‘brog gi lam yig).

At the end of 1951, on the advice of Khenpo Chokyi Wozer, he went to meet Ayu Khandro Dorje Peldron (a yu mkha’ ‘gro rdo rje dpal sgron, 1839–1953). She had been a student of Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo and Nyakla Pema Duddul (nyag bla padma bdud ‘dul, 1816–1872) and had been living in dark retreat for many decades. She gave Namkhai Norbu multiple transmissions, including Khyentse Wangpo’s revelations Gathering of All Ḍākiṇī’s Secrets (mkha’ ‘gro gsang ba kun ‘dus) and Heart Essence of the Deathless Noble Lady (‘chi med ‘phags ma’i snying thig), her own mind-treasure revelation on Siṃhamukhā, Longsel Dorje ‘s (klong gsal rdo rje, 1625–1692) Vajra Essence of the Great Expanse (klong gsal rdo rje snying po), Longchenpa’s Heart Drop of the Ḍākiṇīs (mkha’ ‘gro’i snying thig), the Black Quintessence (yang ti nag po) of Dungtso Repa (dung mtsho ras pa, fifteenth century), and two cycles he had previously received: Do Khyentse’s Chod cycle and Nāropa’s Vajrayogīnī. Ayu Khandro told Namkhai Norbu her life story. His written account is translated in Tsultrim Allione’s Women of Wisdom.

In the summer of 1952, he attended Jamyang Khyentse Chokyi Lodro ‘s (‘jam dbyangs mkhyen brtse chos kyi blo gros, 1893–1959) transmission of the Lamdre Lobshe (lam’bras slob bshad) at Dzongsar. During the month-long event a doctor poisoned him with pills that were ostensibly to prevent a flu that had spread in the monastery. Khyentse Chokyi Lodro’s personal doctor was able to counteract the poison and cure him.

At the end of the summer Chokyi Lodro also transmitted the Dzogchen Trilogy (rdzogs chen sde gsum) that was a joint revelation of Khyentse Wangpo and Chogkyur Lingpa (mchog gyur gling pa, 1829–1870).

Khyentse Chokyi Lodro then advised him to undertake a six-month retreat at Sengchen Namdrak (seng chen gnam brag). While in retreat, in early 1953, he met Adzom Drukpa’s son Gyelse Gyurme Dorje (a ‘dzom rgyal sras ‘gyur med rdo rje, 1895–1959), who was returning from central Tibet. Gyurme Dorje gave him the transmission of all the treasures and works of Adzom Drukpa, as well as Rigdzin Godemchen‘s (rig ‘dzin rgod ldem chan, 1337–1409) Openness of Realization revelation (dgongs pa zang thal).

On ending his retreat, in the spring of 1953, he received Longchenpa’s Four Heart Essences (snying thig ya bzhi) from his uncle Khyentse Chokyi Wangchuk and his uncle’s own revelation called the Aural Chod Instructions of Tangtong Gyelpo (thang rgyal snyan gcod).

Teaching Tibetan Language in Minyak, Dartsedo, and Chengdu, 1953–1955

At the end of 1953 the new Communist Chinese government in the region invited Khyentse Chokyi Wangchuk and Namkhai Norbu to serve as delegates at a conference in Dartsedo (mdar rtse mdo), which would become the capital of the new Ganze Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture. Following the conference, he toured parts of China, and his uncle returned home.

On his return to Dartsedo, the influential political figure Jago Tobden (bya rgod stobs ldan, 1898–1960) recommended him to assist the Ninth Bo Gangkar Rinpoche , Karma Shedrub Chokyi Sengge (‘bo gangs dkar 09 karma bshad sgrub chos kyi seng ge, 1892–1957), in teaching Tibetan language to Chinese students. Thus he went to Bo Gangkar Monastery (‘bo gangs dkar dgon), also known as Khamsumdrak Monastery (khams gsum grags dgon) in Minyak, and in the late evenings received from Gangkar Rinpoche multiple teachings such as the Six Dharmas of Niguma (ni gu chos drug), and revelations of Jatson Nyingpo such as the the Unification of Supreme Jewels (dkon mchog spyi ‘dus) and others, the Mother and Son Heart Essence of the Ḍākiṇī (mkha’ ‘gro snying thig ma bu) of Pema Ledreltsel (padma las ‘brel tsel, 1291–1315), and the Four Medical Tantras. He continued to teach in Dartsedo and Chengdu until 1955, periodically visiting Derge.

During this time, he began to collect Tibetan folk songs, a project that led to the publication of his Musical Tradition of the Tibetan People: Songs in Dance Measure (Rome, 1967).

Final Teachings Received in Tibet, 1955–1958

In the summer of 1954 Namkhai Norbu went to Dzogchen Monastery with his sister Jamyang Chodron, where they received from Tulku Drime (sprul sku dri med) Ratna Lingpa ‘s (ratna gling pa, 1403–1479) Dzogchen Essence of Luminous Space (rdzogs chen klong gsal snying thig) and Duddul Dorje’s Rainbow Body of Samantabhadra (kun bzang ‘ja’ sku), and from Khenpo Ngawang Norbu (mkhan po ngag dbang nor bu, 1866–1958) the Anuyoga empowerment of the Gathered Assembly (tshogs chen ‘dus pa). He also visited his uncle Tokden Orgyen Tenzin who was staying at the Yilhung residence of Jago Tobden and received the complete instructions on the Yantra Yoga teaching known Union of the Sun and the Moon (‘phrul ‘khor nyi zla kha sbyor).

Together with his uncle Khyentse Chokyi Wangchuk, he also received the empowerment of Adzom Drukpa’s revelation of Dorje Drolo, a wrathful form of Padmasambhava. This was the last occasion he had to be with his paternal uncle Tokden Ogyen Tenzin, who passed away several years later.

Namkhai Norbu stopped teaching Tibetan in Chengdu in 1955 and, urged by a dream, went back to his own homeland. There he met the master whom he considered his root teacher, Nyakla Jangchub Dorje (nyag bla byang chub rdo rje, 1863–1963), who was a terton (gter ston) and a medical doctor. Namkhai Norbu stayed several months at his residence Khamdogar (khams mdo gar), during which time Nyakla Jangchub Dorje gave him Dzogchen teachings and his son Gyurme Gyeltsen (‘gyur med rgyal mtshan, 1914–1972) bestowed on him the transmission of all of his father’s revelations, such as the Peaceful and Wrathful: Self Liberation from Samsara and Nirvana (zhi khro ‘khor das rang grol).

In early 1956 he went to Galenteng where he received his final teachings from his uncle Khyentse Chokyi Wangchuk, among them The Lord of Secrets of Lhalung (lha lung gsang bdag), a cycle focusing on Vajrapāṇi. He also went to visit Gala Khenpo Lodro Gyatso (‘ga la mkhan po blo gros rgya mtsho, 1901–1961), a student of Tsangpa Drubchen (gtsang pa grub chen, 1830–1945), from whom he received Sanggye Lingpa ‘s (sangs rgyas gling pa, 1340–1396) Gathering of the Guru’s Intent (bla ma dgongs ‘dus) and the mind treasure (dgongs gter) Mañjuśrī’s Great Completion (‘jam dpal rdzogs chen).

Leaving Tibet

From Galenteng Namkhai Norbu traveled to Lhasa with his father. By the mid-1950s many lamas and opponents of the new Communist regime were fleeing Kham for central Tibet. Despite the tragic circumstances Lhasa was then a remarkable meeting of lamas, many of whom took the opportunity to exchange teachings. Namkhai Norbu met the Sixteenth Karmapa from whom he received the empowerment of the Indivisibility of Lama and Protector (bla mgon dbyer med), a central Mahākāla practice of the Shangpa Kagyu tradition, and the Ocean of Victors (rgyal ba rgya mtsho) empowerment. Dzogchen Khenpo Yonten Gonpo, from whom he had received teachings several years earlier at Dzogchen, gave him the empowerment for Dorje Lingpa‘s (rdo rje gling pa, 1346–1405) Cycle of Hūṃkara: Heart Essence of Dzogchen (rdzogs chen snying po hUM skor). The Sixth Dzogchen Rinpoche , Jikdrel Jangchub Dorje (rdzogs chen 06 ‘jigs ‘bral byang chub rdo rje, 1935–1959), transmitted to him the Fifth Dalai Lama ‘s (ta la’i bla ma 05, 1617–1682) Expanding Arrow of Long Life (tshe sgrub mda’ ‘phel ma).

On learning of the huge celebration in India marking the 2,500th anniversary of the Buddha’s birth, the Buddha Jayanti, and the extensive facilities the Indian government was making available for Tibetan pilgrims, he decided to participate in the events there. He and his father took the opportunity to go on pilgrimage in India, Nepal, and Bhutan, visiting the holy sites there.

After six months in India Namkhai Norbu returned to his homeland and found chaos and turmoil spreading in all regions of Kham. Consequently, he and his entire family escaped fighting in Derge and went to the high pastures to the south, and in spring 1957 they left for Lhasa. Namkhai Norbu tried in vain to convince his uncle Khyentse Chokyi Wangchuk to join them. His sister Jamyang Chodron remained with their uncle.

They traveled for many months, passing through Nangchen, where he received teachings on the Chod of the Zurmang tradition from a female teacher known as Kyabje Chogenma (skyabs rje gcod rgan ma), the “Elderly Refuge Lady of Chod.” In autumn they arrived in Lhasa, where scores of prominent lamas were gathering on the eve of their departure from Chinese-occupied Tibet.

At Tsurpu Monastery (mtshur phu dgon) Namkhai Norbu met again with the Sixteenth Karmapa from whom he received the empowerment for the Ocean of Victors (rgyal ba rgya mtsho). The Sixth Dzogchen Ponlob, Jikdrel Tsewang Dorje (rdzogs chen dpon slob 06 ‘jigs ‘bral tshe dbang rdo rje, 1925–1962) transmitted Karma Chakme ‘s (karma chags med, 1613–1678) instructions on the famous Seven-Line Prayer to Padmasabhava (le’u bdun ma). He also received Vimalamitra’s commentary on the Mañjuśrīnamasaṃgīti from Polu Khenpo Tubten Kunga Gyeltsen (spo lu mkhan po thub bstan kun dga’ rgyal mtshan, 1896–1970), and a long-life empowerment from the Fourteenth Dalai Lama (ta la’i bla ma 14, b. 1935).

In 1958 Chogyal Namkhai Norbu family left Tibet for Sikkim and then to Kalimpong, where he briefly helped Tharchin Babu (mthar phyin ba bu, 1890–1986) on his Tibetan-language newspaper The Mirror and other publications. In Kalimpong he also met Dudjom Rinpoche, Jigdrel Yeshe Dorje (bdud ‘joms rin po che ‘jigs bral ye shes rdo rje, 1904–1987) and received from him a Vajrakīlāya empowerment. He then went into retreat at Pemayangtse Monastery (padma yang rtse dgon).

In 1959 he heard that his father and brother had been arrested by the Chinese, and that soldiers were searching for him. He initially considered returning to Tibet, but when he reached the border, he was discouraged by the masses of Tibetans then escaping. He remained in Sikkim without possibilities of receiving further news about his family. Only many years later did he learn that his father and brother had been tortured and killed. His elder sister had also been imprisoned for three years. His maternal uncle, Khyentse Chokyi Wangchuk had been captured and imprisoned at Derge Gonchen together with Shechen Rabjam and Drukpa Kuchen Tubten Shedrub Trinle Gyatso (‘brug pa sku chen thub bstan shes sgrub phrin las rgya mtsho, 1906–1960). The three lamas were put in different cells and could not communicate with each other, but one morning the guards found them dead, all three sitting in the meditation posture. It is believed they intentionally ejected their consciousnesses to avoid torture.

Rome and Naples

In 1959 the king of Sikkim, Tashi Namgyal (bkra shis rnam rgyal, 1893–1963) offered Namkhai Norbu a position in the Development Office of the Government of Sikkim (‘bras ljongs yar rgyas las khung), for preparing textbooks for the school. By this point he had been studying Sanskrit and Mongolian, and he received various academic offers from different countries. In the autumn of that year, he accepted the invitation to Italy by Tibetologist Giuseppe Tucci (1894–1984), to collaborate at Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente (ISMEO) in Rome, which Tucci had established in 1933 with Giovanni Gentile (1875–1944). Part of the appeal of the position was access to the impressive library of Tibetan texts Tucci had collected.

Before leaving India for Italy, he went to Dharamsala for an audience with the Dalai Lama and to meet Geshe Jampel Sengge (dge bshes ‘jams dpal seng ge), a Geluk scholar who also had been invited to Italy by Tucci.

Chogyal Namkhai Norbu arrived in Italy for the New Year celebrations of 1960, and began his position at ISMEO, Rome, that January. One of his first projects with Tucci was the catalog of his Tibetan collection, published by Elena De Rossi Filibeck in 1994 and 2003.

In 1962, while continuing to assist Tucci in Rome, Namkhai Norbu took a post as teacher of Tibetan language and literature at the University of Naples L’Orientale, a public university founded in 1732 dedicated to Asian studies. He would retire from the university in 1992. He received Italian citizenship 1968 and that same year married Rosa Tolli. They had a son in 1970, Yeshi Silvano Namkhai, and a daughter in 1971, Yuchen Namkhai.

Research on Bon

In Italy, Namkhai Norbu focused his research mainly on the ancient history of Tibet, investigating the autochthonous Bon tradition. His books, which include works on history, medicine, astrology, Bon, and folk traditions, are evidence of his profound knowledge of Tibetan culture and his commitment to preserve this ancient cultural heritage. Among his many ground-breaking publications on Bon and Tibetan history are Necklace of Zi: A Cultural History of Tibet (gzi yi phreng ba) published in English in 1981 and in Tibetan in 1982, and the three-volume Light of Kailash (zhang bod lo rgyus ti se’i ‘i ‘od) published in Tibetan in 1996 and in English between 2009 and 2015. His history of pre-Buddhist Tibet based on Bon sources, Drung, Deu, and Bön: Narrations, Symbolic Language, and the Bön, was published in Tibetan (sgrung lde’u bon gsum gyi gtam e ma ho) in 1989, English in 1995, and Italian (Emaho: le narrazioni, i linguaggi simbolici e il Bön nell’antico Tibet) in 1996.

Yantra Yoga and Dzogchen

In 1971 Chogyal Namkhai Norbu began to teach Yantra Yoga, an ancient form of Tibetan Yoga that combines movement, breathing, and visualization. He had received teachings on this tradition back in 1954 from his uncle Tokden Orgyen Tenzin. The teachings are said to have originated with the eighth-century translator Vairocana and were kept alive in places such as Adzom Gar in Tibet. His 2008 book on the topic is Yantra Yoga: Tibetan Yoga of Movement (Snow Lion).

In the meantime, he was giving informal talks on Buddhism and Dzogchen to a small group of students who used to meet once a week at his house. The teachings he gave were published in 1988 as Introduzione allo Dzogchen: Risposte a sedici domande, and in English in 2020 as Dzogchen: Our Real Condition; An Introduction in Questions and Answers.

In 1976, he gave his first cycle of Dzogchen Upadeśa teachings to a small group of Italian students in Naples, possibly the first time a lama taught Dzogchen in the West, this event was the birthplace of the Dzogchen Community (rdzogs chen’dus sde), which Namkhai Norbu would grow into an international organization. Soon after he accepted an invitation from Laura Albini, a Karma Kagyu student of the Sixteenth Karmapa, to hold a Dzogchen teaching retreat in Subiaco, an ancient Catholic center outside of Rome.

In this way the original group from Naples and the participants of the Subiaco retreat joined to establish the Dzogchen Community all over Italy, first, and gradually, in Europe and other continents.

In his long career as a Dzogchen teacher, he gave transmission of all the three series of Dzogchen with practical instructions of their specific methods of practice, especially reviving the practice of the Four Yogas of Semde, and the Vajra Bridge of Longde.

He also gave many terma teachings such as those of Adzom Drukpa, Nyakla Pema Duddul, Nyakla Jangchub Dorje, Namcho Migyur Dorje, and so forth.

He also wrote the biographies of many of his teachers and many books on Dzogchen, in particular editing and commenting two important early Dzogchen manuscripts from Dunhuang, Vairocana’s Cuckoo’s Cry of Awareness (rig pa’i khu byug) and Buddhagupta’s Birdseed (sbas pa’i rgum chung), the latter of which is included in the most recent edition of the expanded edition of the Spoken Teachings of the Nyingma. His The Crystal and the Way of Light: Sutra, Tantra, and Dzogchen (1989) was one of the first books in English to present Dzogchen for a wide audience.

In 2015 the complete works of Namkhai Norbu were published in Qinghai in Tibetan in five volumes, and in 2016 Sharro: Festschrift for Chögyal Namkhai Norbu, a compilation of essays by multiple scholars, was published in honor his contribution to the Western academic study of Tibet.

Shang Shung Publications and Shang Shung Institute

In 1983 Namkhai Norbu founded Shang Shung Publications to publish his teachings and related books on Buddhism, Yantra Yoga, Dzogchen, and Tibetan Medicine, among other topics. The first was The Mirror: Advice on Presence and Awareness (dran pa dang shes bzhin gyi gdams pa me long ma), written on purpose for a Dzogchen retreat he gave in Sardinia at the end of 1977. As of 2024 over two hundred books have been published in Italian and another two hundred in English.

In 1989 he established the Shang Shung Institute in Italy, to support scholarly research on Tibetan religion history, with a strong focus on language and medicine. Namkhai Norbu attended the first international conference on Tibetan language in Dharamsala in 1987 and was a co-host of the second conference in 1992 in Sienna. Columbia University hosted the third conference, in 2011, co-sponsored by Shang Shung Institute, the Tibetan Buddhist Resource Center, and Trace Foundation.

Namkhai Norbu also promoted the study of Tibetan medicine, organizing the first international convention of Tibetan Medicine in 1983 in Venice, and, under the auspices of the Shang Shung Institute, the second convention in New York in 2014. Shang Shung Institute continues to run annual seminars on specific themes and a four-year training program in Tibetan Medicine. The first class graduated in 2013.

Merigar

In the first half of 1981 the Museum of Folklore in Rome hosted weekly teachings on meditation, Dzogchen, Yantra Yoga, and Tibetan medicine. At this point the need to find land to establish a permanent center to support Namkhai Norbu’s teaching was felt, and in October 1981 a property of several acres in Tuscany was purchased. This would become known as Merigar West. Over the next decade multiple buildings were constructed, including a Temple of Great Contemplation and library that was consecrated by the Fourteenth Dalai Lama in May 1990. A Great Stupa of Enlightenment was consecrated in 1998 by the Forty-First Sakya Trizin (sa skya khri ‘dzin 41, b. 1945), and other masters.

In 1977 Namkhai Norbu had traveled to Austria to teach Dzogchen outside of Italy for the first time, initiating a schedule that would see him travel internationally almost every year for the next three decades.

As interest in his teachings grew among communities in countries other than Italy, Namkhai Norbu established gars, seats of the Dzogchen Community, throughout the world. Tsegyalgar East , the first Dzogchen Community center in the United States, was founded in 1982 in Conway, Massachusetts. He established additional gars in Argentina (1990), Australia (1995) Russia (1999), Venezuela (2001), Mexico (2003), Romania (2006), and Ukraine (2010). In 2013 he established Dzamling Gar in Tenerife, the Canary Islands, Spain, as the global center of the International Dzogchen Community.

Treasure Revelations

Namkhai Norbu expanded his Dzogchen teachings in the mid-1980s with a cycle of revelations he had begun to receive in the 1960s via dreams and visions, known as the Luminous Clarity of the Universe, Heart Essence of the Dakinis (klong chen ‘od gsal mkha’ ‘gro’i snying thig). Known as Longsal, the teachings focus on Anuyoga and Atiyoga and are related to the verses of the Song of the Vajra (rdo rje’i glu), an ancient mantra found in the Union of Sun and Moon (nyi zla kha sbyor), one of the earliest Dzogchen tantras, and in many “liberating diagram” (btags grol) tantras. The meaning and purpose of this song is also illustrated by Longchenpa in his Treasury of the Supreme Vehicle (theg mchog mdzod), one of his seven treasuries.

The Longsal cycle includes also a series of instructions on the practice of Jñānaḍākinī, or wisdom dakini, such as the Mandāravā Long Life (tshe sgrub rdo rje srog thig) which he received during a pilgrimage to Māratika in 1984, a site associated with Padmasambhava and his Indian wife Mandāravā . Another important rediscovery was the revelation of the Vajra Dance through a sequence of dreams in which he would learn and write down all the steps of three ancient sacred dances practiced in the pure land of Oḍḍiyāna. He also brought back to life the practice of the namkha (nam mkha’), an ancient pre-Buddhist method of harmonizing the elements by constructing a colored thread structure symbolizing the astrological elements of an individual.

Return to Tibet and ASIA

In December 1981 Namkhai Norbu returned to central Tibet for the first time since leaving in 1959, and then again in 1987. In 1988 he also visited Khamdo Gar, the residence of his teacher Nyakla Jangchub Dorje, and Galengteng. In August, with a group of students, he visited Mount Kailash . The group also went to Khyunglung in western Tibet to document traces of the Shang Shung kingdom.

Also in 1988 Namkhai Norbu founded the Association for International Solidarity in Asia, or ASIA. The non-profit organization works in Tibet, India, Nepal, Myanmar, Mongolia, and Sri Lanka on issues of cultural heritage, education, economic and social justice, and the environment. Through ASIA Namkhai Norbu has aided in the reconstruction of monasteries and the building of schools in Tibet.

Last years

In recognition of his many decades of service in Italy, on June 2, 2018, Namkhai Norbu was awarded the Commander Order of Merit of the Republic of Italy to recognize “merit contributed to the nation in the fields of literature, the arts, economy, public service, and social, philanthropic, and humanitarian activities and for long and conspicuous service in civilian careers.”

Namkhai Norbu passed away peacefully at his home at Merigar, on September 27, 2018, merging his consciousness with the expanse of the dharmakāya. His son Khyentse Namkhai Yeshe (Yeshi Silvano Namkhai) currently is the spiritual guide of Merigar, Italy. https://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/nam-mkhai-nor-bu/9278